Comparative Analysis of Irrigation Methods Based on Water Productivity and Efficiency under Semi-Arid Climatic Conditions: A Case Study Perspective for Borno State, Nigeria

Water scarcity remains a major constraint to agricultural productivity in semi-arid regions. This study presents a review-based comparative analysis of major irrigation methods surface, sprinkler, drip, and subsurface irrigation using water productivity as the primary performance indicator. The methodology relies on systematic synthesis of published literature, FAO reports, and peer-reviewed journal articles to evaluate irrigation efficiency, crop yield response, economic feasibility, and sustainability. Results indicate that drip irrigation consistently achieves the highest water productivity and irrigation efficiency, followed by sprinkler and subsurface irrigation, while surface irrigation shows the lowest performance due to significant water losses. The findings further reveal that although advanced irrigation systems require higher initial investment, they provide superior long-term benefits in terms of yield and resource conservation. The study concludes that drip irrigation is the most suitable option for water-scarce environments such as Borno State, although adoption is constrained by economic and technical factors. The paper provides recommendations for improving irrigation management and policy support to enhance water use efficiency in semi-arid agricultural systems.